the following describe internal states of symptoms except the following describe internal states of symptoms except

The following morning, he awoke to barking dogs and unfamiliar voices from downstairs. While we all experience altered states of consciousness in the form of sleep on a regular basis, some people use drugs and other substances that result in altered states of consciousness as well. Generally, treatment for night terrors is unnecessary unless there is some underlying medical or psychological condition that is contributing to the night terrors (Mayo Clinic, n.d.). Users often consume the drug every few hours across days-long binges called runs, in which the user forgoes food and sleep. As a group, hallucinogens are incredibly varied in terms of the neurotransmitter systems they affect. Toleranceis linked to physiological dependence, and it occurs when a person requires more and more drug to achieve effects previously experienced at lower doses. In general, these drugs are not thought to possess the same sort of abuse potential as other classes of drugs discussed in this section. Sleep regulationrefers to the brains control of switching between sleep and wakefulness as well as coordinating this cycle with the outside world. The axons of light-sensitive neurons in the retina provide information to the SCN based on the amount of light present, allowing this internal clock to be synchronized with the outside world (Klein, Moore, & Reppert, 1991; Welsh, Takahashi, & Kay, 2010) (Figure 4.3). It is quite possible that sleep serves no single universally adaptive function, and different species have evolved different patterns of sleep in response to their unique evolutionary pressures. In such instances, REM rebound may actually represent an adaptive response to stress in non-depressed individuals by suppressing the emotional salience of aversive events that occurred in wakefulness (Suchecki, Tiba, & Machado, 2012). Asleep spindleis a rapid burst of higher frequency brain waves that may be important for learning and memory (Fogel & Smith, 2011; Poe, Walsh, & Bjorness, 2010). Consider a patient who believed that as a result of his sleep apnea he had three car accidents in six weeks. Individuals who suffer from RBD have high levels of physical activity during REM sleep, especially during disturbing dreams. . If you get peritoneal dialysis, peritonitis symptoms also may include: Cloudy dialysis fluid. Gastrointestinal symptoms including abdominal pain, diarrhea, and vomiting. It is also common for these types of drugs to cause hallucinations of body sensations (e.g., feeling as if you are a giant) and a skewed perception of the passage of time. c. absence of subjective symptoms of disease. Common definitions of health include: a. optimal weight and endurance. This section will consider these questions and explore various explanations for why we sleep. (a) A period of rapid eye movement is marked by the short red line segment. Some of these areas include the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the pons. Narcoleptic episodes take on other features of REM sleep. Narcolepsy is associated with reduced levels of the signaling molecule hypocretin in some areas of the brain (De la Herrn-Arita & Drucker-Coln, 2012; Han, 2012), and the traditional stimulant drugs do not have direct effects on this system. Describe the diagnostic criteria for substance use disorders, Identify the neurotransmitter systems impacted by various categories of drugs, Describe how different categories of drugs affect behavior and experience, Understand the similarities and differences of hypnosis and meditation. 1. (a) A typical CPAP device used in the treatment of sleep apnea is (b) affixed to the head with straps, and a mask that covers the nose and mouth. Alertness is associated with higher body temperatures, and sleepiness with lower body temperatures. Like NREM sleep, REM has been implicated in various aspects of learning and memory (Wagner, Gais, & Born, 2001; Siegel, 2001). This will be followed by brief descriptions of the effects of some of the more well-known drugs commonly used today. LINK TO LEARNING: To learn more about some of the most commonly abused prescription and street drugs, check out the, LINK TO LEARNING: Feeling stressed? Medical marijuana is marijuana that is prescribed by a doctor for the treatment of a health condition. This chart illustrates the circadian change in body temperature over 28 hours in a group of eight young men. Complete the following multiple choice quiz covering chapters 1, 6, and 9. It is possible that even the processing of emotional information is influenced by certain aspects of sleep (Walker, 2009). It was getting to the point where it was kind of scary (Henry & Rosenthal, 2013, p. 52). Many individuals diagnosed with sleep apnea first seek treatment because their sleeping partners indicate that they snore loudly and/or stop breathing for extended periods of time while sleeping (Henry & Rosenthal, 2013). For example, repeated use can lead to overall depletion among the monoamine neurotransmitters (dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin). A sleep deprived individual generally will fall asleep more quickly than if she were not sleep deprived. b. life expectancy has reached a new high. Sleep can be divided into two different general phases: REM sleep and non-REM (NREM) sleep. Heavy meals may make you sleepy, but they can also lead to frequent awakenings due to gastric distress. However, the success rate of such treatments is questionable. Anopioidis one of a category of drugs that includes heroin, morphine, methadone, and codeine. EVERYDAY CONNECTION: Solutions to Support Healthy Sleep, continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP). This feeling of a depressed mood is also accompanied by two or more additional symptoms, to include changes in appetite, insomnia or hypersomnia, low energy or fatigue, low self-esteem, feelings of hopelessness, and poor concentration or difficulty with decision making. While there are variations, there are four parts that appear consistent in bringing people into the state of suggestibility associated with hypnosis (National Research Council, 1994). Some people who have injected many times into their arms will show track marks, while other users will inject into areas between their fingers or between their toes, so as not to show obvious track marks and, like all abusers of intravenous drugs, have an increased risk for contraction of both tuberculosis and HIV. Stage 2 sleep is characterized by the appearance of both sleep spindles and K-complexes. Again, this is an intuitive and appealing explanation for why we sleep. Typically, individuals suffering from night terrors will fall back asleep again within a short time. Acetylcholine functions as a neurotransmitter in motor neurons. The following describe internal states of symptoms EXCEPT? In other words, dreaming involves constructing a virtual reality in our heads that we might use to help us during wakefulness. Drug withdrawal is usually an aversive experience, and it can be a life-threatening process in individuals who have a long history of very high doses of alcohol and/or barbiturates. In her case, the fact that her cataplexy was confined to the right side of her body was quite unusual. It is typically consumed in pill form. Drug use disorders are addictive disorders, and the criteria for specific substance (drug) use disorders are described in DSM-5. Comparative research indicates, however, that the relationship that exists between predatory risk and sleep is very complex and equivocal. This becomes a self-perpetuating cycle because increased anxiety leads to increased arousal, and higher levels of arousal make the prospect of falling asleep even more unlikely. Many college students struggle getting the recommended 79 hours of sleep each night. A person who has a substance use disorder often uses more of the substance than they originally intended to and continues to use that substance despite experiencing significant adverse consequences. describes our awareness of internal and external stimuli. In our discussion of the mental symptoms I reported as an illustration of the suggestive treatment of the drug passion the case of a morphinist. Surprisingly, sleep apnea may exacerbate cardiovascular disease (Snchez-de-la-Torre, Campos-Rodriguez, & Barb, 2012). These symptoms include fatigue, sluggishness, irritability, andinsomnia(i.e., a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep for at least three nights a week over a months time) (Roth, 2007). In contrast, a person who haspsychological dependencehas an emotional, rather than physical, need for the drug and may use the drug to relieve psychological distress. In addition, sleep deprivation often results in depression-like symptoms. These individual differences in circadian patterns of activity are known as a persons chronotype, and research demonstrates that morning larks and night owls differ with regard to sleep regulation (Taillard, Philip, Coste, Sagaspe, & Bioulac, 2003). Some research suggests that sleep deprivation affects cognitive and motor function as much as, if not more than, alcohol intoxication (Williamson & Feyer, 2000). One particular aspect of the internal state is that a method applied to the object being in a defined internal state (= a specific set of all its attributes' value) will result in another, also defined (and reproducible) internal state. The sleep and dreaming researcher Rosalind Cartwright, however, believes that dreams simply reflect life events that are important to the dreamer. Some research suggests that species that face higher predatory risks sleep fewer hours than other species (Capellini et al., 2008), while other researchers suggest there is no relationship between the amount of time a given species spends in deep sleep and its predation risk (Lesku, Roth, Amlaner, & Lima, 2006). 0. Marijuana may also have some promise in the treatment of a variety of medical conditions (Mather, Rauwendaal, Moxham-Hall, & Wodak, 2013; Robson, 2014; Schicho & Storr, 2014). Research shows that the most severe effects of sleep deprivation occur when a person stays awake for more than 24 hours (Killgore & Weber, 2014; Killgore et al., 2007), or following repeated nights with fewer than four hours in bed (Wickens, Hutchins, Lauk, Seebook, 2015). Furthermore, these types of behaviors ultimately disrupt sleep, although affected individuals have no memories that these behaviors have occurred (Arnulf, 2012). Like all opioids, codeine does have abuse potential. There are now several synthetic versions of opiate drugs (correctly called opioids) that have very potent painkilling effects, and they are often abused. In 2012, Kromann and Nielson reported on a case study of a 40-year-old woman who suffered significant ill effects from her use of caffeine. Nicotine is most commonly used in the form of tobacco products like cigarettes or chewing tobacco; therefore, there is a tremendous interest in developing effective smoking cessation techniques. Furthermore, slow-wave sleep after learning a new task can improve resultant performance on that task (Huber, Ghilardi, Massimini, & Tononi, 2004) and seems essential for effective memory formation (Stickgold, 2005). To prevent withdrawal, many people turned to cheaper heroin, which could be bought for $5 a dose or less. AK-complexis a very high amplitude pattern of brain activity that may in some cases occur in response to environmental stimuli. As an individual continues through stage 1 sleep, there is an increase in theta wave activity. c. Cognitive-behavioral therapy has been demonstrated to be quite effective in treating insomnia (Savard, Simard, Ivers, & Morin, 2005; Williams, Roth, Vatthauer, & McCrae, 2013). This chapter will discuss states of consciousness with a particular emphasis on sleep. Historically, heroin has been a major opioid drug of abuse (Figure 4.17). Heroin produces intense feelings of euphoria and pleasure, which are amplified when the heroin is injected intravenously. Those who continue to have insomnia, particularly if it affects their quality of life, should seek professional treatment. Signs of inflammation help healthcare providers in making a diagnosis. Vaping as a means to deliver nicotine is becoming increasingly popular, especially among teens and young adults. We spend approximately one-third of our lives sleeping. Our experiences change dramatically while we are in deep sleep and once again when we are dreaming. The first stage of NREM sleep is known as stage 1 sleep. There is a trend that females report more somatic symptoms than males; thus, more females are diagnosed with somatic symptom disorder than males (APA, 2022). Sleepwalking, restless leg syndrome, and night terrors are all examples of parasomnias (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). Despite the prevalence of caffeine use and the large number of people who confess to suffering from caffeine addiction, this was the first published description of soda dependence appearing in scientific literature. While we have discussed the negative outcomes associated with sleep deprivation, it should be pointed out that there are many benefits that are associated with adequate amounts of sleep. Loss of appetite. One of the most common treatments for sleep apnea involves the use of a special device during sleep. An agonist facilitates the activity of a neurotransmitter system, and antagonists impede neurotransmitter activity. For individuals who are especially open to the power of suggestion, hypnosis can prove to be a very effective technique, and brain imaging studies have demonstrated that hypnotic states are associated with global changes in brain functioning (Del Casale et al., 2012; Guldenmund, Vanhaudenhuyse, Boly, Laureys, & Soddu, 2012). Tolerance can cause the user to increase the amount of drug used to a dangerous leveleven to the point of overdose and death. Understanding the impact of sleep on cognitive function should help you understand that cramming all night for a test may be not effective and can even prove counterproductive. MDMA (3.4-methelynedioxy-methamphetamine, commonly known as ecstasy or Molly) is a mild stimulant with perception-altering effects. REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD)occurs when the muscle paralysis associated with the REM sleep phase does not occur. For example, around one third of individuals diagnosed with narcolepsy experience vivid, dream-like hallucinations during narcoleptic attacks (Chokroverty, 2010). These sleep episodes are often associated withcataplexy, which is a lack of muscle tone or muscle weakness, and in some cases involves complete paralysis of the voluntary muscles. Remarkably, Falater insisted that he had no recollection of hurting his wife in any way. However, alternative treatment options are being explored because consistent compliance by users of CPAP devices is a problem. In some cases, users experience vivid visual hallucinations. Some people might turn to over-the-counter (OTC) or prescribed sleep medications to help them sleep, but this should be done sparingly because many sleep medications result in dependence and alter the nature of the sleep cycle, and they can increase insomnia over time. (West et al., 2009, p. 114). Sleep debt and sleep deprivation have significant negative psychological and physiological consequencesFigure 4.5. Fever. At rather low doses, alcohol use is associated with feelings of euphoria. . Chronic insomnia is almost always associated with feeling overtired and may be associated with symptoms of depression. This is an important factor because we can develop tolerance and experience withdrawal from any number of drugs that we do not abuse. The woman used caffeine in the past to boost her mood and to provide energy, but over the course of several years, she increased her caffeine consumption to the point that she was consuming three liters of soda each day. The first three stages of sleep are NREM sleep, while the fourth and final stage of sleep is REM sleep. In terms of brain wave activity, stage 1 sleep is associated with both alpha and theta waves. The freebase version of cocaine, known as crack, is a potent, smokable version of the drug. The typical episode can last from a minute or two to half an hour. For example, people who undergo chemotherapy will often be prescribed marijuana to stimulate their appetites and prevent excessive weight loss resulting from the side effects of chemotherapy treatment. Using crystal meth poses a number of serious long-term health issues, including dental problems (often called meth mouth), skin abrasions caused by excessive scratching, memory loss, sleep problems, violent behavior, paranoia, and hallucinations. Another theory regarding why we sleep involves sleeps importance for cognitive function and memory formation (Rattenborg, Lesku, Martinez-Gonzalez, & Lima, 2007). This final section will consider hypnotic and meditative states as additional examples of altered states of consciousness experienced by some individuals. In contrast,non-REM (NREM)sleep is subdivided into four stages distinguished from each other and from wakefulness by characteristic patterns of brain waves. The amount of sleep we get varies across the lifespan. In general, smoking cessation programs may be effective in the short term, but it is unclear whether these effects persist (Cropley, Theadom, Pravettoni, & Webb, 2008; Levitt, Shaw, Wong, & Kaczorowski, 2007; Smedslund, Fisher, Boles, & Lichtenstein, 2004). Stimulantsare drugs that tend to increase overall levels of neural activity. Freud was not the only theorist to focus on the content of dreams. We might also experience unconscious states of being via drug-induced anesthesia for medical purposes. In this section, we will discuss each of these stages of sleep and their associated patterns of brain wave activity. Yarmila Falaters body was found in the familys pool with 44 stab wounds. The researchers showed that these states correspond to distinct strategies, and then they identified . Awareness of internal stimuli includes feeling pain, hunger, thirst, sleepiness, and being aware of our thoughts and emotions. Just as bears hibernate in the winter when resources are scarce, perhaps people sleep at night to reduce their energy expenditures. The pineal and pituitary glands secrete a number of hormones during sleep. Two sleeping children are depicted in this 1895 oil painting titled. In 2015, the National Sleep Foundation updated their sleep duration hours, to better accommodate individual differences. Vaping uses battery-powered devices, sometimes called e-cigarettes, that deliver liquid nicotine and flavorings as a vapor. Amphetamines have a mechanism of action quite similar to cocaine in that they block the reuptake of dopamine in addition to stimulating its release (Figure 4.16). Devices like this are designed to provide exposure to bright light to help people maintain a regular circadian cycle. By the late 19th century, German psychiatrist SigmundFreudhad become convinced that dreams represented an opportunity to gain access to the unconscious. In fact, it has been suggested that there is no reason to think that energetic demands could not be addressed with periods of rest and inactivity (Frank, 2006; Rial et al., 2007), and some research has actually found a negative correlation between energetic demands and the amount of time spent sleeping (Capellini, Barton, McNamara, Preston, & Nunn, 2008). It is much more difficult to awaken someone from sleep during stage 3 than during earlier stages. Opium, Heroin, Fentanyl, Morphine, Oxycodone, Vicoden, methadone, and other prescription pain relievers, Decreased pain, pupil dilation, decreased gut motility, decreased respiratory function. Dopamine activity is often associated with reward and craving; therefore, drugs that affect dopamine neurotransmission often have abuse liability. Guilleminault et al. Hypnosis has also been used to draw out information believed to be buried deeply in someones memory. As we grow older, we sleep less. It is relatively easy to wake someone from stage 1 sleep; in fact, people often report that they have not been asleep if they are awoken during stage 1 sleep. (credit sleeping: modification of work by Ryan Vaarsi). My sophomore college housemate got so stressed out during finals sophomore year he drank almost a whole bottle of Nyquil to try to fall asleep. A few such benefits listed by the National Sleep Foundation (n.d.) include maintaining healthy weight, lowering stress levels, improving mood, and increasing motor coordination, as well as a number of benefits related to cognition and memory formation. Methamphetamine addiction produces an intense craving that is difficult to treat. Recently, a new EPAP (expiratory positive air pressure) device has shown promise in double-blind trials as one such alternative (Berry, Kryger, & Massie, 2011). The participant is guided to focus on one thing, such as the hypnotists words or a ticking watch. One complete menstrual cycle takes about 28 daysa lunar monthbut many biological cycles are much shorter. c. are influenced by peer pressure, often leading to unhealthful or unsafe behaviors. During periods of emotional arousal, the woman complained that she felt some weakness on the right side of her body. Homeostasisis the tendency to maintain a balance, or optimal level, within a biological system. Often, however, people wishing to learn to meditate receive some training in techniques to achieve a meditative state. The substantial amount of research on SIDS has led to a number of recommendations to parents to protect their children (Figure 4.14). (a) This is a statue of a meditating Buddha, representing one of the many religious traditions of which meditation plays a part. Add a comment. In addition, these individuals may wake up several times during the night only to find that they have difficulty getting back to sleep. Generally, and for most people, our circadian cycles are aligned with the outside world. Insudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)an infant stops breathing during sleep and dies. You were capable of engaging in the all of the complex tasks involved with operating a motor vehicle even though you were not aware of doing so. (Jayanthi & Ramamoorthy, 2005; Rothman, Blough, & Baumann, 2007). Inflammation has many causes, including infections, injuries, and diseases. Its simply that they feel so overwhelmed and stressed that they cannot fall asleep or stay asleep. Rather, the ISS r ecognizes mixed states and depressive symptoms during manic and hypomanic episodes. Diarrhea. Given the average life expectancy for U.S. citizens falls between 73 and 79 years old (Singh & Siahpush, 2006), we can expect to spend approximately 25 years of our lives sleeping. One of the nurses said, If youve had a partner who does work regular job 9 to 5 office hours . High doses increase agitation, paranoia, can cause hallucinations. Aside from their utility as analgesic drugs, opioid-like compounds are often found in cough suppressants, anti-nausea, and anti-diarrhea medications. 1. He suffered from no apparent anatomical brain anomalies or psychological disorders. For one, research suggests that infants should be placed on their backs when put down to sleep, and their cribs should not contain any items which pose suffocation threats, such as blankets, pillows or padded crib bumpers (cushions that cover the bars of a crib). These brain areas include the prefrontal cortex and basal ganglia. In addition, the appearance of K-complexes is often associated with stage 2 sleep. People sleep better in cooler temperatures. Thepineal gland, an endocrine structure located inside the brain that releases melatonin, is thought to be involved in the regulation of various biological rhythms and of the immune system during sleep (Hardeland, Pandi-Perumal, & Cardinali, 2006). Access for free athttps://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction. When we do this, we often experience jet lag. Opioid addiction reached crisis levels in the United States such that by 2019, an average of 130 people diedeach dayof an opioid overdose (NIDA, 2019). Sleep is characterized by certain patterns of activity of the brain that can be visualized using electroencephalography (EEG), and different phases of sleep can be differentiated using EEG as well. While many users snort cocaine, intravenous injection and inhalation (smoking) are also common. 22. Table 4.1shows the new recommendations, which describe sleep durations that are recommended, may be appropriate, and not recommended. Acircadian rhythmis a biological rhythm that takes place over a period of about 24 hours. As already mentioned, the hypothalamus contains the SCNthe biological clock of the bodyin addition to other nuclei that, in conjunction with the thalamus, regulate slow-wave sleep. Homeostatic regulation of sleep is evidenced by sleep rebound following sleep deprivation. Mescaline and LSD are serotonin agonists, and PCP (angel dust) and ketamine (an animal anesthetic) act as antagonists of the NMDA glutamate receptor. For example, withdrawal from sedative drugs often produces unpleasant arousal and agitation. A hypnogram is a diagram of the stages of sleep as they occur during a period of sleep. When we are very young, we spend up to 16 hours a day sleeping. The tendency to maintain a stable, relatively constant internal environment is called homeostasis. This campaign is sponsored in part by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Causes. Sleepwalking most often occurs during slow-wave sleep, but it can occur at any time during a sleep period in some affected individuals (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). A person withrestless leg syndromehas uncomfortable sensations in the legs during periods of inactivity or when trying to fall asleep. Withdrawal from opioids includes pain, which patients often misinterpret as pain caused by the problem that led to the original prescription, and which motivates patients to continue using the drugs. Aside from the role that REM sleep may play in processes related to learning and memory, REM sleep may also be involved in emotional processing and regulation. Although there are a number of different techniques in use, the central feature of all meditation is clearing the mind in order to achieve a state of relaxed awareness and focus (Chen et al., 2013; Lang et al., 2012). Caffeine is found in many common medicines (such as weight loss drugs), beverages, foods, and even cosmetics (Herman & Herman, 2013). Generally, narcolepsy is treated using psychomotor stimulant drugs, such as amphetamines (Mignot, 2012). Recent research (Horikawa, Tamaki, Miyawaki, & Kamitani, 2013) has uncovered new techniques by which researchers may effectively detect and classify the visual images that occur during dreaming by using fMRI for neural measurement of brain activity patterns, opening the way for additional research in this area. It may feel like alcohol helps you sleep, but it actually disrupts REM sleep and leads to frequent awakenings. Normal brain functioning is altered after repeated use of these drugs. B) the cause of the problem. Sleep is also associated with the secretion and regulation of a number of hormones from several endocrine glands including: melatonin, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and growth hormone (National Institutes of Health, n.d.). This created a black market for the drug, where prices soared to $80 or more for a single pill. We also alter our consciousness through the use of various psychoactive drugs. If you cannot fall asleep, leave your bed and do something else until you feel tired again. Increased prescriptions led to greater rates of misuse, along with greater incidence of addiction, even among patients who used these drugs as prescribed. Sleepis a state marked by relatively low levels of physical activity and reduced sensory awareness that is distinct from periods of rest that occur during wakefulness. This figure illustrates some of the negative consequences of sleep deprivation.